The Warrior Queen’s Guide to
Contracts
COPYRIGHT FAQs
© Claudia Karabaic Sargent 2000, 2002 e-mail:cksargent@warrior-queen.com
General Questions About Copyright What is copyright? Copyright is a “bundle of rights”, infinitely divisible,
where each separate right of reproduction (or usage) can be transferred
individually or collectively by the copyright owner to another individual
or entity.
The rights of copyright include:
-the right to reproduce or copy
a physical object for intended dissemination to the public
-the right to distribute the
reproductions made from the original
-the right to create derivative
works based on the original work
-the right to publicly display
works
-the right to publicly perform
works (such as a copyrighted piece of music or choreography).
What is the purpose of copyright? According to the US Constitution, Article 1, Section 8, the purpose of copyright is “to promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries”. What is copyrightable?
Are rights of copyright separate from ownership
of the original artwork?
Yes, they are. Here’s what the statute itself has
to say:
Ownership of a
copyright, or of any of the exclusive rights under a copyright, is distinct
from ownership of any material object in which the work is embodied. Transfer
of ownership of any material object, including the copy or phonorecord
in which the work is first fixed, does not itself convey any rights in
the copyrighted work embodied in the object; nor, in the absence of an
agreement, does transfer of ownership of a copyright or of any exclusive
rights under a copyright convey property rights in any material object.
What that means is, when you sell or license your
rights of copyright and deliver a “material object” to your client (i.e.,
original artwork, a transparency of the artwork, or a scan or digital file
on a disk), that material object is not part of the sale. Ownership of
the “material object” remains with the artist, unless there is an agreement
in place between you and your client that transfers ownership of the material
object to your client or a third party. Conversely, if you sell an original
artwork, no rights of copyright are transferred to the purchaser
of the material object (the artwork), unless there is an agreement
specifically granting those rights of copyright-- which may be subdivided
in any way that makes sense to you and the artwork’s purchaser. Also, if
you sell a copy of an original (i.e., fine art prints of one of your artworks),
you are only selling the physical copy -- no rights of copyright are transferred
along with the material object (in this instance, the fine art print).
Who can own a copyright? Any individual or entity (such as a corporation)
can own a copyright.
What is proper copyright notice? Proper notice should read like so:
Copyright, Copr., or © (YOUR NAME HERE)(the
year date of the creation of the work).
So-- for a painting, poem, or song I create this
year, proper notice would read
© Claudia Karabaic Sargent 2002
How long does copyright last? Getting The Most Out Of Your Copyrights How do you get a copyright in something that you have created? You automatically own the copyright of anything
original that you have ever created in a fixed form. If you have painted
a picture, written a poem, song, or story, composed music, created the
choreography for a dance-- you already own the copyright to that creation.
There are many misconceptions about copyright--
People often ask me how they “get” a copyright, or whether mailing their
art to themselves is as good as registering their work with the government.
Copyright is a complex subject, but there are basically only 3 things you
really need to know about it.
1) You own the copyright in anything you create
by virtue of having created it. You don’t have to do anything special to
“get” a copyright (except create something).
2) You can only lose your copyright in your creation
if you SIGN IT AWAY.
BUT-- this is the most important thing--
3)The only way you can truly defend your
copyrights is by registering them with the Copyright Office.
What are the advantages of registering a copyright
with the Copyright Office?
When you register your copyright with the Copyright
Office, you are availing yourself of one of the cheapest insurance policies
available for protecting your intellectual property. If your copyright
is ever infringed upon, you must have registered your copyright before
you can file a lawsuit against the infringer.
By registering your copyright prior to publication
or within 90 days of the first publication of your work, you are establishing
a public record of your claim to authorship of your creation. Your registration
certificate is proof of your “presumptive claim of ownership”, leaving
the burden of proving otherwise to the infringing party. You must register
within 90 days of publication of your work, or at any time prior to the
first infringement, to be entitled to the full range of remedies available
under the law.
Additional benefits to registering prior to infringement
are the ability to win statutory damages and the awarding of attorney’s
fees in any copyright lawsuit you would bring against an infringer.
How does a person register a copyright? You need to fill out a form, and send the form,
2 copies of a published work to be registered (only 1 complete copy is
needed for an unpublished work), and $30.00 to The Register of Copyrights
at the Library of Congress. You can download the forms you need online
at http://lcweb.loc.gov/copyright/forms/
It is a good idea to familiarize yourself with the
different forms beforehand-- there are a number of different forms for
different kinds of art and text needs, and it’s important to use the correct
one. For the most part, graphic artists will be using Forms VA and GR/CP
to register their works.
Do I have to register each work individually, at $30 each? NO! There are a couple of ways to accomplish group
registration.
You can register groups of unpublished work all
together as a collection, for the same fee. Use Form VA, and fill it out
as you would for a single unpublished piece, except in Space 1 (Title)
you give the title of the collection of works you are registering (i.e.,
The Collected Works of I.M.A. Artist, Volume 1, 1998-2000) and in
Space 3(a), give the year date of the most recently completed piece in
the collection.
If you are registering all of the illustrations
you created for a published book, or a suite of prints that were published
at the same time, the book or suite of prints can be registered as a single
work.
If you are registering published work that you’ve
done for periodicals over a 12 month period, you can register them all
together using Form GR/CP in conjunction with Form VA, for the same $30
fee.
When is my work considered registered? Your work is registered as of the date that your
full deposit (properly filled-out form, check, and copies of the work)
is received by the Copyright Office. Since it can take as long as 6-8 months
to get your Certificate from the Copyright Office, it’s best to send your
deposit via a trackable method of delivery that provides proof of receipt.
Use a courier service that provides you with a dated proof of delivery.
How can a person learn about the different forms and the other requirements for copyright registration? I’m happy to say that this is one government office
that really works for the benefit of the people! You can obtain excellent
copyright information from knowledgeable professionals in the following
ways:
1) Visit the website at http://lcweb.loc.gov/copyrightto
read about copyright, and to download forms & information circulars
in .pdf format.
2) Mail a request for the free Copyright
Information Kit to:
The Copyright Office
Information & Publications
Section
Library of Congress
Washington, DC 20559
It can take some time to fulfill requests--allow
2-3 weeks for delivery of your order.
3) Call the Public Information Office at 202-707-3000;
taped info is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. To talk to an information
specialist, call weekdays from 8:30 AM - 5 PM Eastern Time (not available
on weekends or legal holidays), and follow the phone tree instructions.
NOTE: To bypass the recorded information and
speak to an examiner call: 202-707-5959.
4)
Use the Forms Hotline at 202-707-9100 to request registration forms and
information circulars.
5)
Use the Library of Congress “Fax on Demand” service at 202-707-2600 if
you know what forms you’ll need.
What is “work-for-hire”? A “work-for-hire” is a work in which the creator
of the work has contractually signed away his/her rights, and thus no longer
enjoys any of the rights of authorship, including copyright.
There are two ways in which an original creative
work can become a “work-for-hire”.
(1) An employee creating a copyrightable work within
the scope of his/her employment is creating a work made for hire, in which
his/her employer will be the author of record (unless the employee has
a contract which specifically states otherwise).
(2) An independent contractor creating a specially commissioned copyrightable work in one of nine specific categories (as specified in the Copyright Act of 1976), where the artist has signed a written contract specifying that the work being created is a “work for hire” or “a work made for hire.” What kinds of work can be “works-for-hire”? Work that you create for yourself (i.e., that wasn’t
specially commissioned by a client) CANNOT be a work-for-hire.
There are 9 categories of work that can be
specially commissioned as works-for hire. If the work in question doesn’t
fit any of the categories, then it can’t be a work-for-hire. If you have
any doubt, check with the Copyright Office, or talk to someone knowledgeable
about copyright.
The work must fall within one of these categories:
A contribution to a collective
work, such as a magazine, newspaper, encyclopedia, or anthology
A contribution used as part of
a motion picture or other audiovisual work
A translation
A compilation, which is a work
formed by collecting and assembling pre-existing materials or data
An instructional text
A test
Answer material for a test
An atlas
A supplementary work, defined
as a work used to supplement a work by another author for such purposes
as illustrating, explaining, or assisting generally in the use of the author’s
work. Examples of supplementary works are forewords, afterwords, pictorial
illustrations, maps, charts, tables, editorial notes, appendixes, and indexes.
What are the disadvantages to the artist of “work for hire” contracts? When an artist signs a work-for-hire contract, the
artist is renouncing all authorship rights that s/he once enjoyed as the
creator of an original work of art. By signing a work-for-hire contract,
you are saying that the other party is the author of the work; that they
own the copyright; that they can use it, change it, make other works out
of it, do whatever they want with your creation, because you are no longer
the creator. In signing a work-for-hire contract, you become an employee
for copyright purposes only; it doesn’t mean that you are entitled to any
employees’ benefits from the commissioning party; you’re still going to
have to pay ALL the income taxes (and self-employment tax) on the money
you earned; AND you may not even retain the right to display the work in
your portfolio. (Remember, you’re not the author any more. You signed away
ALL your rights of copyright-- one of which was, to display the work.)
In the later years of your successful career, you
won’t be able to benefit financially from the earlier work you did as works
made for hire; you don’t own them anymore. And there is no way to get them
back, period.
How does a work become a “work-for-hire”? In the case of independent contractors (or freelancers),
the statute as written makes clear that there must be a written agreement
between the parties that states that the work in question is a work made
for hire, and that this contract must be signed by both parties prior to
the commencement of the work in question. More and more media corporations
are attempting to tie up their freelance talents’ PAST AND FUTURE
contributions by having them sign blanket contracts that deem as “works
made
for hire” not only the current project, but all past and future
work that that client may have previously or may, at some indeterminate
future date, assign to the freelancer.
The reverse is true with employees (as “employee”
is defined legally--a person who works for a salary, with benefits, a set
place of work, and a schedule and working conditions that are controlled
by the employer). Everything an employee creates for his/her employer within
the scope of his/her regular employment is a work made for hire, unless
the employee has a contract with the employer that reverts the rights of
authorship back to the employee.
How can an artist avoid the work-for-hire trap? As a freelancer, you should try to avoid signing
contracts that use the words “work for hire”, or any similar language.
If your client insists, offer them the alternative of exclusive rights
for their particular need.
Even an “all-rights” agreement would be preferable
to a “work-for-hire” agreement, because after a period of time, you will
have the option of terminating the rights transfer and reverting the rights
back to yourself.
If you are an employee,you can try to negotiate
rights back from your employer; if you do so, be sure to do so in writing,
or it doesn’t count.
What’s the main difference between a “work-for hire” agreement and an “all-rights” agreement? You can never terminate a work-for-hire agreement;
once you sign one, the authorship and the ownership of the copyright in
the work you created is transferred to the client for the entire term of
copyright-- for “works-for-hire”, that term is 95 years from first publication
or 120 years from the year date of creation, whichever term is shorter.
After that term, the works pass into the public domain, where everyone
is free to use them.
An all-rights agreement (or any exclusive grant
of rights that isn’t limited as to the length of the term) can be terminated
by the copyright owner at any point during a 5 year period that starts
no sooner than 35 years after the grant of rights has been executed (i.e.,
the work’s been done and paid for by the client, and published, if it was
for publication). What this means is that you and your heirs can still
benefit financially from your works, even if you’ve granted “all rights”
to the works in question. There is a specific method for terminating these
grants of rights that must be adhered to; be sure to refer back to the
Copyright Office for specific instructions when the time comes.
What constitutes infringement? Strictly speaking, infringement is the unauthorized
use of the copyrighted works of another party without their permission.
Making photocopies or scanning another person’s
work without their permission is an infringement; if you make your own
art using art, photographs, text, music, etc., that was created by someone
else WITHOUT the copyright owner’s express permission (and where the work
being used by you is not in the public domain), you are infringing on the
copyright owner’s copyright.
What do I do if someone infringes my copyright? First thing to do is REGISTER, if you haven’t already
done so. As long as you have registered your copyright PRIOR to the date
of the infringement (the date it occurred, not the date you discovered
it), you can avail yourself of the full range of legal options. Then, contact
a lawyer. Guild members have access to referrals with lawyers who are experienced
in copyright issues. If your means are limited, contact your state chapter
of Volunteer Lawyers for the Arts; they provide free legal help for artists
who fall within their income guidelines.
If your work was registered prior to infringement,
a lawyer’s letter may be all that’s needed to address the problem.
Is there a legal test for what constitutes infringement? Yes-- if the average person would say that one artwork
was copied from another, that’s sufficient: copying need not be exact to
constitute infringement.
In a copyright lawsuit, the plaintiff (or copyright
owner) must prove two things: first, that the defendant (or copyright infringer)
had ACCESS to the work in question, and second, that the two works are
SUBSTANTIALLY SIMILAR in the eyes of the average person.
(Note: Very often, in the case of a work that wasn’t
registered before infringement, the defendant will concede liability--in
other words saying, “Yeah, I copied it, so what?”--thus moving the trial
into the “damages” stage. This is where the difference between statutory
and actual damages comes into play, and where the tactical advantage often
goes to the defendant. Remember, without being able to rely on the statute,
the burden of proving actual damages now rests upon
the plaintiff. You can avoid this by registering your copyrights.)
What are statutory damages? How are they different
from other damage awards?
Statutory damages are the damages that the Copyright
Law itself specifies should be awarded to copyright owners
whose works are infringed; statutory damages can be awarded in amounts
up to $100,000 per infringement.
The difference between statutory damages and actual
damages (the kind you get if you didn’t register prior to infringement)
is that you must prove your actual damages in that portion
of your lawsuit. This means that you, as the injured party, must find some
way of proving the monetary value of the losses you suffered due to the
infringement of your work. You have to hire the accountants to go through
the infringers’ books; you have to find some way of proving how much money
you would have made if you had used your work in the same manner as the
infringer.Even with a cooperative defendant, this is time-consuming and
expensive.
When you are entitled to statutory damages, the
judge awards the damages to you according to what the law allows. Very
often, an infringer will settle out-of-court to avoid a trial when faced
with this alternative.
And what about the attorneys’ fees? When you have registered your copyright, and someone
infringes upon your copyright in your original work, you will probably
need to hire a lawyer to handle your case. If you sue and you win, the
judge will award you your reasonable attorneys’ fees as part of your judgment.
This scenario is often a powerful enough stimulant to the defendant to
settle out-of-court, as the amount of the award of attorneys’ fees is at
the judge’s discretion and can be very, very expensive to the defendant.
Another reason to register is that if you don’t,
then the judge CANNOT award attorney’s fees--the law does not give him
that option; you pay your lawyer out of your actual damages award (and
the attorneys’ fees can total more than the amount you win in court).
What is “fair use”? Fair use is a narrow exception to a copyright owner’s
ability to exclusively control the uses of the work in question; in general,
fair use includes the use of the work in news reporting, teaching, scholarship,
or research. For instance, use of an artist’s copyrighted painting to illustrate
an article about the artist would be considered “fair use”; but, making
copies of that article to distribute to your class without
the permission of the publisher of the article might not be
a fair use--better to ask permission from the copyright owner of the article.
The criteria in the courts use in evaluating whether
a specific instance is “fair use” or not include:
(a)the purpose and character
of the use
(b)the nature of the copyrighted
work
(c) the amount and substantiality
of the portion of the work used, relative to the copyrighted work as a
whole
(d)the effect of the use in question
on the potential market value of the copyrighted work.
These Copyright FAQs are by no means an exhaustive exploration of the
subject.
The Graphic Artists Guild Handbook, Pricing & Ethical Guidelines, 10th Edition, distributed
by North Light Books
Legal
Guide for the Visual Artist, by Tad Crawford; published by Allworth
Press
Licensing
Art & Design, by Caryn R. Leland; published by Allworth Press
Volunteer
Lawyers for the Arts: Guide to Copyright for the Visual Arts:
Painters,
Sculptors, Photographers, Graphic Artists,
published by Volunteer Lawyers for the Arts, NY NY 10022
If you haven’t yet done so, be sure to drop by the Graphic Artists Guild website at http://www.gag.org Also on the web, the Copyright Office, at http://lcweb.loc.gov/copyright/
You can download forms at http://lcweb.loc.gov/copyright/forms/
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